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nascent planets

Occasionally, science comes together beautifully for a discovery — and sometimes this happens for more than one team at once! Today we explore how two independent collaborations of scientists simultaneously found the very first kinematic evidence for young planets forming in a protoplanetary disk. Though they explored the same disk, the two teams in fact discovered different planets.

Evidence for Planets

HD 163296

ALMA’s view of the dust in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the young star HD 163296. Today’s studies explore not the dust, but the gas of this disk. [ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO); A. Isella; B. Saxton (NRAO/AUI/NSF)]

Over the past three decades, we’ve detected around 4,000 fully formed exoplanets. Much more elusive, however, are the young planets still in the early stages of formation; only a handful of these have been discovered. More observations of early-stage exoplanets are needed in order to understand how these worlds are born in dusty protoplanetary-disk environments, how they grow their atmospheres, and how they evolve.

Recent observations by the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) have produced stunning images of protoplanetary disks. The unprecedented resolution of these images reveals substructure in the form of gaps and rings, hinting at the presence of planets that orbit within the disk and clear out their paths as they move. But there are also non-planet mechanisms that could produce such substructure, like grain growth around ice lines, or hydrodynamic instabilities in the disk.

How can we definitively determine whether there are nascent planets embedded in these disks? Direct direction of a point source in a dust gap would be a strong confirmation, but now we have the next best thing: kinematic evidence for planets, from the motion of a disk’s gas.

velocity kink

Observations of carbon monoxide line emission at +1km/s from the systemic velocity (left) vs. the outcome of a computer simulation (right) in the Pinte et al. study. A visible kink occurs in the flow, which can be reproduced by the presence of a 2-Jupiter-mass planet at 260 AU. [Pinte et al. 2018]

Watching Gas Move

In two papers published today in ApJL — one led by Richard Teague (University of Michigan) and the other led by Christophe Pinte (Monash University in Australia and Grenoble Alpes University in France) — astronomers have announced the detection of distinctive signs of planets in the gas motion of the disk surrounding HD 163296. This young star, located about 330 light-years away, is only ~4 million years old.

Unlike studies that hinge on observations of a disk’s dust — which only makes up ~1% of the disk’s mass! — both studies here took a new approach: they used detailed ALMA observations revealing the dynamics of the disk’s carbon monoxide gas. By studying the gas’s motion, the teams found deviations from the Keplerian velocity that would be expected if there were no planets present. The authors then ran simulations to demonstrate that the deviations are consistent with local pressure perturbations caused by the passage of giant planets.

velocity deviations caused by planets

Rotational velocity deviations due to changes in the local pressure, caused in this simulation by the presence of planets. [Teague et al. 2018]

Giants Found

What did they find? Teague and collaborators, whose technique to identify velocity variations is best suited to explore the inner regions of the disk, discovered evidence for two separate Jupiter-mass planets orbiting at distances of 83 AU and 137 AU in the disk. Pinte and collaborators, whose velocity-measurement technique better explores the outer regions of the disk, found evidence for a two-Jupiter-mass planet orbiting at 260 AU.

These results will rely on additional imaging in the coming years to confirm the presence of these newly born planets — and a detection of point sources at these radii remains a hopeful goal for the future. Nonetheless, the new techniques explored here by Teague, Pinte, and collaborators are a promising route for young exoplanet discovery and characterization in other disks imaged by ALMA and future instruments.

Citation

Richard Teague et al 2018 ApJL 860 L12. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac6d7
C. Pinte et al 2018 ApJL 860 L13. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac6dc

neutron-star merger

When two neutron stars merged in August of last year, leading to the first simultaneous detection of gravitational waves and electromagnetic signals, we knew this event was going to shed new light on compact-object mergers.

A team of scientists says we now have an answer to one of the biggest mysteries of GW170817: after the neutron stars collided, what object was formed?

black hole

Artist’s illustration of the black hole that resulted from GW170817. Some of the material accreting onto the black hole is flung out in a tightly collimated jet. [NASA/CXC/M.Weiss]

A Fuzzy Division

Based on gravitational-wave observations, we know that two neutron stars of about 1.48 and 1.26 solar masses merged in GW170817. But the result — an object of ~2.7 solar masses — doesn’t have a definitive identity; the remnant formed in the merger is either the most massive neutron star known or the least massive black hole known.

The theoretical mass division between neutron stars and black holes is fuzzy, depending strongly on what model you use to describe the physics of these objects. Observations fall short as well: the most massive neutron star known is perhaps 2.3 solar masses, and the least massive black hole is perhaps 4 or 5, leaving the location of the dividing line unclear. For this reason, determining the nature of GW170817’s remnant is an important target as we analyze past observations of the remnant and continue to make new ones.

Chandra GW170817

Chandra images of the field of GW170817 during three separate epochs. Each image is 30” x 30”. [Adapted from Pooley et al. 2018]

Luckily, we may not have long to wait! Led by David Pooley (Trinity University and Eureka Scientific, Inc.), a team of scientists has obtained new Chandra X-ray observations of the remnant of GW170817. By combining this new data with previous observations, the authors have drawn conclusions about what object was left behind after this fateful merger.

X-Rays Provide Answers

X-ray radiation is generated in a merger of two neutron stars when the merger’s shock wave expands and slams into the surrounding interstellar medium. The earliest X-ray detection from GW170817 — around 9 days after the merger — likely indicated the moment when that interaction began. GW170817’s X-ray emission continued to grow over the first ~100 days post-merger, expected as the shock continues to expand.

If the merger had produced a neutron star, however, there should be an additional source of X-ray radiation besides the shock: the neutron star itself. This emission should, by now, have started to dominate over the emission from the propagating shock. Instead, Pooley and collaborators find that the observed X-ray flux from GW170817 falls significantly short of what’s needed to justify the presence of a highly magnetized, spinning neutron star. For this reason, the authors conclude that GW170817 likely produced a black hole.

Future Confirmation

How can we be sure? Pooley and collaborators point out that we can confirm this theory just by observing GW170817 for another year. Around this time, energy released from the spin-down of a central neutron star would catch up to the decelerating shock front, causing a dramatic brightening in GW170817’s X-ray flux. 

If we don’t see this brightening, the authors argue that we can conclude with certainty that GW170817’s remnant is a black hole. Either way, continued observations of this remnant are sure to provide a wealth of information about the physics of mergers, shocks, and outflows that we can hope to mine for years to come.

Citation

David Pooley et al 2018 ApJL 859 L23. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac3d6

Mars atmosphere

In the search for life elsewhere in the universe, Mars has always represented an important target for exploration. What can this planet’s evolution — from a potentially habitable world to its current inhospitable state — tell us about the possibility of life on habitable exoplanets beyond our solar system?

A Past of Contrast

Mars ocean

Artist’s illustration of an ancient ocean on Mars. [NASA/GSFC]

Life on Mars has been a topic of speculation for well over a century. Today, scientists no longer consider it very likely that inhospitable Mars is inhabited by alien life — but the red planet wasn’t always so unwelcoming.

While today’s Mars is an arid desert, mounting evidence suggests that ancient Mars — the Mars of 4 billion years ago — not only had aqueous environments, but possibly even global oceans. Evidence for minerals, biogenic elements, and suitable energy sources for prebiotic chemistry increase the prospects for ancient Mars’s habitability.

So what caused the difference between this welcoming ancient Mars and the inhospitable Mars of the current epoch? Ancient Mars had one more thing: a thick protective atmosphere. Today’s Mars has only a thin, tenuous atmosphere remaining between its surface and the hostile conditions of space.

In a new theoretical study led by Chuanfei Dong (Princeton University), a team of scientists explore how Mars may have lost its atmosphere, causing the planet’s transformation to its current state.

atmospheric escape rates

Results from the authors’ simulations showing the ion (total ion shown in blue) and photochemical (heated atomic oxygen shown in magenta) escape rates over the Martian history. Ion escape rates were much higher 4 billion years ago. [Dong et al. 2018]

Loss of an Atmosphere

Dong and collaborators use sophisticated global 3D simulations of a Mars-like body to explore different types of atmospheric loss over time. By including the evolution of the ultraviolet radiation levels and solar wind strength, the authors can explore how atmospheric escape rates for ions and atoms have changed over Mars’s history.

Dong and collaborators find that Mars’s atmospheric ion escape rate, in particular, was more than two orders of magnitude higher 4 billion years ago compared to the present-day level. This is a result of the stronger solar wind and higher ultraviolet fluxes that came from the young Sun.

These high ion escape rates are more than enough to explain the rapid loss of Mars’s thick atmosphere very early in its lifetime — which leads to the depletion of any surface water Mars might have once had. Dong and collaborators argue that Mars might once have had a global ocean at least 2.6 m deep; according to the authors’ simulations, this water would have been depleted within 4 billion years, resulting in the arid Mars we observe today.

Beyond Our Solar System

exoplanet atmosphere

Artist’s impression of a rocky exoplanet with a thick water atmosphere. [MPIA]

What implications do these discoveries have on our search for life beyond our solar system? Early Mars may well be a prototype for small, rocky, potentially habitable planets orbiting solar-type stars. In this case, the authors’ results suggest that early atmospheric escape may be common among such planets, preventing life from easily persisting. The time-dependence of atmospheric loss is therefore an important element to keep in mind as we choose our targets and explore exoplanet candidates in the future.

Citation

Chuanfei Dong et al 2018 ApJL 859 L14. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/810/2/136

PSR J2215

How massive can a neutron star get? In a recent study, scientists may have identified the most massive neutron star yet — by leveraging observations of its highly irradiated companion.

Finding the Maximum

The maximum possible mass for a neutron star is a topic of heated debate; knowing this limit could put significant constraints on models of neutron-star interior structures and compositions, which are longstanding open questions in neutron-star studies.

Until now, the most massive known neutron star was pulsar PSR J0348+0432, which weighs in at 2.01 solar masses. For years, scientists have been on the hunt for other massive neutron stars to push this limit even higher — and now, J0348 may finally have been dethroned.

Led by Manuel Linares (Polytechnic University of Catalonia and the Canary Islands Institute of Astrophysics, Spain), a team of scientists has used a unique approach to measure a new, intriguing heavyweight: PSR J2215+5135.

A Tricky System

spectra of J2215

The spectra of J2215 look drastically different at different phases in its orbit: when we view its hot, irradiated side (bottom spectrum), it looks like an A5 star (2nd spectrum from bottom). When we view its dark, cool side (3rd spectrum from bottom), it looks like a G5 star (4th spectrum from bottom). [Linares et al. 2018]

PSR J2215+5135 is a so-called “redback” system consisting of a millisecond pulsar — a rapidly spinning, highly magnetized neutron star — closely orbiting an extremely low-mass companion star; the pulsar and its companion zip around each other in just 4.14 hours.

How can we measure PSR J2215’s mass? Ordinarily, we’d use the spectra of its companion star to identify Doppler shifts of absorption lines from the star’s atmosphere. This can reveal the star’s radial velocity, ultimately allowing us to model the system and obtain the masses of the neutron star and its companion. But PSR J2215 has thus far resisted such efforts, with different studies all finding significantly different radial-velocity measurements for the companion star. What’s going on with this tricky system?

New Champion Crowned

Linares and collaborators have an explanation: the companion star is being positively blasted with radiation by the nearby pulsar. As a result, the star effectively has two sides: the cool, dark side facing away from the neutron star, and the extremely hot, irradiated side facing toward it. The offset of the companion’s center of light from its center of mass complicates efforts to reliably measure its radial velocity from its spectrum.

light curves for J2215

Model fits to the orbital light curves for J2215 in three bands. [Linares et al. 2018]

Linares and collaborators circumvent this problem by using high-quality optical spectra from the Gran Telescopio Canarias and other telescopes to identify, for the first time, absorption lines from both the cool side and the hot side of the companion star. The authors use these lines from opposite sides of the star to bracket the center-of-mass velocity.

By jointly modeling both the radial-velocity data for the two star sides and the light curves in multiple bands, the authors are able to calculate the mass of the neutron star and its companion, respectively ~2.3 and ~0.33 solar masses. If verified, PSR J2215 would shatter the past record for maximum neutron-star mass, introducing new constraints to models of neutron-star equations of state.

What’s more, the authors’ novel technique for extracting the neutron star’s mass can be applied to many similar known systems, as well as the many we expect to discover in the future. With luck, we’ll be able to continue to push the limit of the maximum neutron-star mass, learning about these compact beasts in the process.

Citation

M. Linares et al 2018 ApJ 859 54. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabde6

NGC 1052-DF2

Does the galaxy NGC 1052-DF2 really lack dark matter, or is this ultra-faint dwarf just misunderstood? A recently published paper calls into question this recent, surprising discovery 65 million light-years from our home.

Scientific Process at Work

Scientists don’t always agree — and that’s a good thing! Believe it or not, what makes the process of science work is precisely this: researchers challenging each other and questioning their data, analysis, or results. As scientists work to defend and adapt their research, they improve the robustness of their models and outcomes, and the research field gradually progresses as a whole.

This past month, astronomy has had a healthy dose of scientific disagreement after an article was published in Nature suggesting the discovery of a galaxy lacking dark matter. In a recently published response, a team of scientists led by Nicolas Martin (University of Strasbourg, France; Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Germany) suggests that uncertainties and small-number statistics have led to NGC 1052-DF2 being misunderstood.

A Quick Recap

globular clusters of NGC 1052-DF2

The 11 globular clusters associated with NGC 1052-DF2 (imaged by HST), and their spectra (taken with Keck/LRIS). [van Dokkum et al. 2018]

Last month, Pieter van Dokkum (Yale University) and collaborators announced new observations of the dwarf galaxy NGC 1052-DF2, a very low-surface-brightness satellite orbiting the elliptical galaxy NGC 1052. Van Dokkum et al. identified 10 objects that are likely globular clusters in NGC 1052-DF2 and measured their line-of-sight velocities.

Here’s where it gets tricky: the authors used the measured velocities of these 10 tracers to estimate a velocity dispersion for the sample. They then used this as a measure of the dynamical mass of the galaxy. Van Dokkum and collaborators reached the conclusion that the galaxy’s dynamical mass is very nearly the same as its stellar mass, suggesting that NGC 1052-DF2 has a very low mass-to-light ratio and is severely lacking in dark matter.

Scrutinizing with Statistics

So what’s the catch? Statistics — it’s a dangerous game to make strong statements from the dynamics of only 10 globular clusters. With small numbers such as these, the statistical result depends critically on the model assumptions and how the data is analyzed.

mass-to-light ratio limits

Inferred mass-to-light ratio for multiple models. Martin et al.’s inferred upper limits (black and red arrows) are much less restrictive than van Dokkum et al.’s (grey arrow). [Martin et al. 2018]

In their recent ApJL publication, Martin and collaborators demonstrate that the use of several different statistical models and analysis procedures produce widely different results for NGC 1052-DF2’s mass-to-light ratio relative to van Dokkum et al.’s analysis — underscoring the difficulty in extracting information from small data sets with large uncertainties.

Martin and collaborators argue that the constraints on the dwarf galaxy’s dark-matter content aren’t as strong as van Dokkum et al. suggest. Martin et al. find only weak constraints on the system’s mass-to-light radius — the authors agree that NCG 1052-DF2 is not massively dominated by dark matter, but Martin and collaborators find that its properties could still be consistent with other dwarf galaxies found in the Local Group.

Thus, instead of a definitive answer about NGC 1052-DF2’s dark-matter content, we are left with a tale of caution and a hope of future work on the subject. Frustrating? Perhaps — but that’s science! The dialog begun between these authors is likely only the beginning of an ongoing conversation about NGC 1052-DF2, dark matter, statistics, and analysis of observations — and it’s exciting to watch in real time as the field progresses.

*****

Note: See Mia de los Reyes’s post over at Astrobites for some excellent additional coverage of Martin et al.’s article and more on the topic of NGC 1052-DF2.

Citation

Nicolas F. Martin et al 2018 ApJL 859 L5. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac216

Titan's seas

The frigid seas of Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, host a secret: something is causing features to appear and disappear within them. Could these seas be bubbling? And if so, how could such bubbles form and grow?

Frigid Seas

Titan

Near-infrared mosaic showing sunlight reflecting off of Titan’s north polar hydrocarbon seas. [NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/University of Idaho]

While observing Saturn’s rings in 1655 — that’s a whopping 363 years ago! — Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens spotted something else: Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. In 2007, more than three centuries later, we got our first up-close look at Titan when the Cassini/Huygens probe arrived at Saturn and discovered new surprises from this moon.

Titan is a hostile, chilly world, with a nitrogen atmosphere and an icy crust. Its distance from the Sun is roughly ten times the Earth–Sun distance, so Titan’s surface temperatures are only around 95 K (–290 °F). At this temperature, hydrocarbons methane and ethane take liquid form, pooling in pockets in Titan’s crust to form hundreds of hydrocarbon lakes and seas that dot Titan’s surface.

magic islands in Ligeia Mare

Evolution of transient bright features — “magic islands” — in Ligeia Mare, as seen by radar images. Click for a better look. [NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASI/Cornell]

Magic Islands

In the past few years, scientists have noticed something odd about one of these seas, the northern Ligeia Mare: radar observations of Titan’s surface have shown bright regions within the sea that appear and vanish from one flyby to the next. In acknowledgement of these features’ mysteriousness, scientists nicknamed them “magic islands”.

What could be causing these transient features? One of the more popular explanations is that streams of bubbles are being released as atmospheric nitrogen — originally dissolved in the liquid methane and ethane of the sea — separates out and rises to the surface.

Now, two scientists from the University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne in France, Daniel Cordier and Gérard Liger-Belair, want to understand whether such bubbles could even form in the unique environment of Titan’s seas.

Growing Bubbles from the Seafloor

Cordier and Liger-Belair start their study from what we know: if the “magic islands” are, in fact, bubbles, then they must be at least ~2cm in size near the surface of Ligeia Mare; if they were any smaller, they wouldn’t reflect the radar waves. The authors then use theoretical calculations and simulations to explore ways to form and grow bubbles to this size in a hydrocarbon sea.

bubble column schematic

Authors’ sketch of a column of bubbles within Titan’s liquid methane/ethane seas. Radar waves come in from above and reflect off of the bubbles. [Cordier & Liger-Belair 2018]

Cordier and Liger-Belair find that homogeneous nucleation, where bubbles form without a surface, can’t explain the observations under the conditions of Titan’s surface. But heterogeneous nucleation, in which bubbles form on surfaces like the seabed or suspended sediment particles, can work to produce bubbles that grow to reach ~2-cm sizes.

The authors show that the best explanation for large bubbles at Ligeia Mare’s surface is that bubbles form or are released tens of meters down at the seabed and then rise as a vertical column. As the bubbles bump into each other and combine within this plume, they arrive at the sea’s surface at a potential size perfect for reflecting radar waves.

Cordier and Liger-Belair’s work shows that nitrogen bubbles in a methane and ethane sea could indeed explain the “magic islands” we only discovered after three centuries of studying Titan. Who knows what we’ll learn in the next three centuries observing this mysterious moon!

Citation

Daniel Cordier and Gérard Liger-Belair 2018 ApJ 859 26. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aabc10

Magellanic Clouds

The Magellanic Clouds — two nearby dwarf galaxies easily visible to the naked eye in the southern hemisphere — are key to understanding the dynamics and evolution of the Local Group of galaxies. Can an in-depth look at these galaxies’ outer regions help us make sense of their complicated interaction history?

A Closer Look at Our Galactic Neighbors

Magellanic Stream

A combined optical and radio view of the Milky Way and the Magellanic Stream, shown in pink. [David L. Nidever, et al., NRAO/AUI/NSF and Mellinger, Leiden/Argentine/Bonn Survey, Parkes Observatory, Westerbork Observatory, and Arecibo Observatory]

The Small and Large Magellanic Clouds (SMC and LMC) have been well studied, but these dwarf satellite galaxies continue to inspire new discoveries. Among them is the origin of the Magellanic Stream — a swath of neutral hydrogen trailing the Magellanic Clouds and spanning more than half a million light-years.

It was originally thought that the Magellanic Stream was the result of tidal interactions during close encounters with the Milky Way, but precise proper motion surveys revealed that the LMC and SMC are either passing near the Milky Way for the first time or are in a long (~4-billion-year) orbit around our galaxy — so the Magellanic Stream must result from interactions between the two galaxies themselves.

How long have the LMC and SMC been interacting, and how have these interactions shaped the two galaxies? A key to understanding the history of these dwarf galaxies is mapping the weakly gravitationally bound stars at their far edges that may be pulled into tidal streams or bulges as each galaxy is distorted by the presence of the other.

Stellar substructures

A map of the density of ancient stars surrounding the Magellanic Clouds reveals extended structures to the north and south of the LMC, while the western regions of the galaxy (to the right) are truncated. Click to enlarge. [Adapted from Mackey et al. 2018]

Mapping the Edges of Galaxies

Dougal Mackey (Australian National University) and collaborators used visible and near-infrared images taken by the Dark Energy Camera (DECam) — the workhorse instrument of the Dark Energy Survey — to map the faint outskirts of the LMC and SMC.

Though the purpose of the Dark Energy Survey is to better understand the nature of dark energy through observations of supernovae, weak gravitational lenses, and galaxy clusters, its sensitive imaging system and wide field of view (2.2 degrees in diameter) make it well-suited to exploring the faint fringes of nearby galaxies.

The DECam images of the Magellanic Clouds probed to a surface brightness of 32 magnitudes per square arcsecond, allowing Mackey and collaborators to investigate how different stellar populations are distributed in the outer regions of these galaxies.

Stellar population maps

Stellar density maps for young (<1 Gyr) and intermediate-age (1.5–4 Gyr) populations. The young stars trace a bridge between the galaxies, while the intermediate-age stars are offset from the ancient stars in the direction of the LMC. Click to enlarge. [Adapted from Mackey et al. 2018]

Structures Revealed in Faint Starlight

Mapping the density of stars revealed distinct stellar substructures on the outskirts of the LMC and SMC. While previous studies discovered isolated substructures on the outer limits of the LMC, the panoramic view from this study highlights the interconnected nature of the structures.

One important finding is that the intermediate-age (1.5–4 Gyr) stellar population of the SMC is distinctly offset from the ancient (~11 Gyr) stellar population. This result suggests that the Magellanic Clouds may have been gravitationally linked as far back as several billion years — hinting that these galaxies are on their first trip past the Milky Way. Future simulation work may provide a more cohesive picture of the LMC–SMC interaction, helping us better understand how our near neighbors have evolved.

Citation

Dougal Mackey et al 2018 ApJL 858 L21. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aac175

protoplanetary disk

What’s one thing the interstellar medium, protoplanetary disks, stellar interiors, and the environments around black holes all have in common? They all contain dust grains moving within a fluid — and two scientists from the California Institute of Technology say we’ve been missing an important part of their behavior.

Pairing of Fluids and Dust

Crab Nebula

Hubble view of the Crab Nebula. Supernova ejecta are another instance of a coupled system of dust grains and fluid. [NASA/ESA/J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University)]

Fluids — which can refer to liquids, gases, or plasmas — rarely exist in isolation in astrophysics. More often than not, fluids come laden with dust particles; examples of dusty fluids include the environments near star-forming regions, in planetary atmospheres, in the disks surrounding young stars, or even around active galactic nuclei. Since these fluid/dust systems are abundant across the universe and are fundamental to many key astrophysical processes, it’s important that we understand how they behave.

Caltech scientists Jonathan Squire and Philip Hopkins ask one particular question: what happens when dust particles move at a different speed than the fluid surrounding them?

Relative Motion

Relative motion of dust through fluid can arise naturally through many mechanisms. Radiation pressure, for instance, preferentially accelerates dust grains relative to gas in environments around active galactic nuclei or in the envelopes of stars, causing the dust to stream through the surrounding fluid. Or the fluid of a planetary atmosphere might be supported against gravity by thermal pressure, causing the heavier dust grains to settle downward through the fluid.

In a new study, Squire and Hopkins suggest that this relative streaming motion between dust grains and fluid can easily create instabilities — and this can have profound implications for our understanding of many fields of astrophysics.

Instabilities Found Everywhere

The authors used analytic calculations to show that coupled fluid/dust systems can develop “resonant drag instabilities” whenever the dust grains stream faster than any wave in the fluid.

planetary atmosphere

In a planetary atmosphere like the one shown in this artist’s impression, a fluid might be supported against gravity, whereas dust grains are not. This would create relative motion of the dust particles as they settle. [Max Planck Society]

These instabilities, it turns out, are quite easy to trigger, because astrophysical fluids host a variety of waves, any of which can form the basis for a resonant drag instability. Examples include sound waves, magnetosonic waves, Brunt–Väisälä waves, epicyclic oscillations, and others. The instabilities triggered by the streaming dust in the presence of these waves grow over time, causing spatial clumping of the dust and eventually seeding turbulence if they’re strong enough.

Squire and Hopkins present a way of calculating the growth rates and properties of these resonant drag instabilities in different fluids, and they demonstrate the behavior of the instabilities in three example fluid systems: hydrodynamic, magnetohydrodynamic, and stratified fluids.

The authors argue that the consequences of the resonant drag instability affect regions and processes like planetesimal formation, cool-star winds, active galactic nuclei torii and winds, starburst regions, H II regions, supernovae ejecta, and the circumgalactic medium. Their work toward understanding this instability is therefore broadly applicable across astronomical fields, providing critical insight into processes in our universe.

Citation

J. Squire and P. F. Hopkins 2018 ApJL 856 L15. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aab54d

Screenshot of the user interface for WWT shows clusters of objects plotted against a sky background.

One of the most rapidly evolving elements of astronomy research is how we handle data. With telescopes and computer simulations progressively producing ever vaster quantities, how can we process and analyze this data? What tools can we use to turn it into new astronomical discoveries?

The future of astronomy relies on new innovations on this front, and in a Special Issue of the Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 23 papers explore different insights and challenges related to astronomical data — presenting new workflows, software instruments, databases, and tutorials that will aid astronomers in generating novel and significant research results.

Here are the broad categories of data in astronomy that are touched on in this special issue:

volume renderings

Volume renderings from a simulation of a low metallicity star. This is an example of the data that can be analyzed using cyberhub, a web-browser-based tool for medium-sized collaborations. [Herwig et al. 2018]

1. Cloud-Based Research Environments for Discovery

Collaborations in astronomy are often large and broadly distributed. As a result, the astronomy community needs the infrastructure to be able to access large data sets, combine them, and collaboratively process them to make discoveries. An article by Herwig et al. presents the cyberhubs system, a package for medium-sized scientific teams to collaboratively interact with data via web browser. Williams et al. discuss the challenges inherent in reducing a large photometric data set — in their case, data from the Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT) — on the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2), a commercial system of virtual computers that users can rent on demand. Heidorn et al. present Astrolabe, a cyberinfrastructure project of the University of Arizona and the American Astronomical Society that aims to ensure the long-term curation of astronomical data for future reference and use.

2. Software Instruments for Transient Detection, Alerts, and Analysis

time-variable sources

Just some of the time-variable sources that are detected and analyzed, and their characteristic timescales for variation. [Narayan et al. 2018]

Given the current boom of time-domain astronomy, the development of tools for studying transient astronomical phenomena is crucial. Necessary tools include not only those that will detect transients, but also those that provide alerting for rapid followup, and those that enable analysis of the large quantities of resulting data. Law et al. discuss realfast, a fast transient search system at the Jansky Very Large Array that will look for transients in real time as data comes in, reducing the amount of data that must be stored. Guillochon et al. introduce MOSFiT, a software package that enables rapid comparison of transient data to models. And Narayan et al. present ANTARES, an automated software system that sifts through, characterizes, annotates, and prioritizes transient events for followup, allowing for rapid alerting of the community to transients that warrant additional observations.

In addition to searching for unexpected transient events, time-domain astronomers also study the variability of single sources. He et al. describe a long-term study of magnetic-feature and flare activity of three Sun-like stars with Kepler. As for the Sun itself — studying it in detail produces terabytes-per-hour streams of data that must be captured and analyzed. Denker et al. present the challenges of managing such a stream of high-resolution observations at the GREGOR Solar Telescope, and Boubrahimi et al. explore how best to interpolate between solar data collected from a variety of ground-based and space-based solar observatories every day.

3. Statistical Properties of Data with Uncertainties or Gaps

How do we address the issue of incomplete or uncertain data? Correct application of statistical methods are an important aspect of data reduction. Hogg et al., Vianello, Huppenkothen et al., VanderPlas, Huijse et al., Ma et al., and Aggarwal et al. all present on methods of careful statistical handling of astronomical data — covering topics from an overview of Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods for sampling probability density functions, to a look at how we might use statistics to predict solar eruptions.

OSSOS TNOs

Blue dots represent the 838 characterized OSSOS discoveries of trans-Neptunian objects from a recent data release. [Bannister et al. 2018]

4. New Database Releases

The production of vast amounts of data isn’t enough — it must also be compiled in a useful way before it can be analyzed by the community. The regular release of large, updated databases are an important driver of astronomical discovery. In this Special Issue, Bannister et al. present the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (OSSOS), a data release of more than 800 trans-Neptunian objects, and Egeland introduces sunstardb, a database useful for studying stars in analogy to the Sun.

5. Astronomy Data in Publication

The big-data boom produces many important questions in scientific publishing, like how data will be cited and classified, whether software instrument source codes will be made available, and what impact these references might have on the future of astronomical publication. Novacescu et al. discuss the policy of data citation — in particular, using digital object identifiers (DOIs) to refer to data both analyzed and generated by research projects. Frey et al. present an update on the Unified Astronomy Thesaurus, an effort to unite astronomers under a single vocabulary to govern keywords and classification for astronomy research. Allen et al. address the issue of source code availability: can other researchers easily access the software you used, to explore or reproduce your results? Varga examines how metrics based on references or keywords can be used to predict citation impact for scientific articles.

6. Advances in Data Visualization

WWT UI

More screen captures of the WorldWide Telescope user interface. [Rosenfield et al. 2018]

One challenge of astronomy data echoes the challenge inherent in all of science: how can we best communicate and share it? Rosenfield et al. introduce a tool for this, the American Astronomical Society’s WorldWide Telescope (WWT). This project enables terabytes of astronomical images, data, and stories to be viewed and shared among researchers, exhibited in science museums, projected into full-dome immersive planetariums and virtual reality headsets, and taught in classrooms.

It’s evident that there are indeed many challenges raised by the production and management of vast amounts of astronomical data — but there are also many opportunities available. The articles in this Special Issue are meant to provide an introduction to some of the topics currently under consideration, but conversations will continue to evolve as we adapt to this age of big data.

Citation

Special ApJS Issue on Data

Frank Timmes and Leon Golub 2018 ApJS 236 1. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aab770

black holes in a globular cluster

What is the distribution of sizes of black holes in our universe? Can black holes of any mass exist, or are there gaps in their possible sizes? The shape of this black-hole mass function has been debated for decades — and the dawn of gravitational-wave astronomy has only spurred further questions.

Mind the Gaps

The starting point for the black-hole mass function lies in the initial mass function (IMF) for stellar black holes — the beginning size distribution of black holes after they are born from stars. Instead of allowing for the formation of stellar black holes of any mass, theoretical models propose two gaps in the black-hole IMF:

  1. An upper mass gap at 50–130 solar masses, due to the fact that stellar progenitors of black holes in this mass range are destroyed by pair-instability supernovae.
  2. A lower mass gap below 5 solar masses, which is argued to arise naturally from the mechanics of supernova explosions.
Missing black-hole formation channels

Missing black-hole (BH) formation channels due to the existence of the lower gap (LG) and the upper gap (UG) in the initial mass function. a) The number of BHs at all scales are lowered because no BH can merge with BHs in the LG to form a larger BH. b) The missing channel responsible for the break at 10 solar masses, resulting from the LG. c) The missing channel responsible for the break at 60 solar masses, due to the interaction between the LG and the UG. [Christian et al. 2018]

We can estimate the IMF for black holes by scaling a typical IMF for stars and then adding in these theorized gaps. But is this initial distribution of black-hole masses the same as the distribution that we observe in the universe today?

The Influence of Mergers

Based on recent events, the answer appears to be no! Since the first detections of gravitational waves in September 2015, we now know that black holes can merge to form bigger black holes. An initial distribution of black-hole masses must therefore evolve over time, as mergers cause the depletion of low-mass black holes and an increase in higher-mass black holes.

A team of scientists led by Pierre Christian, a graduate student at Harvard University, has now looked into characterizing this shift. In particular, Christian and collaborators explore how black-hole mergers in the centers of dense star clusters ultimately shape the black-hole mass function of the universe.

Black Holes Today

Christian and collaborators use analytical models of coagulation — mergers of particles to form larger particles — to estimate the impact of mergers in star clusters on resulting black-hole sizes. They find that, over an evolution of 10 billion years, mergers can appreciably fill in the upper mass gap of the black-hole IMF.

black-hole mass function

An example of the black-hole mass function that can result from evolving the initial mass function — complete with gaps — over time. Two breaks appear as a result of the initial gaps: one at ~10 (LB) and one at ~60 solar masses (UB). [Christian et al. 2018]

The lower mass gap, on the other hand, leaves observable signatures in the final black-hole mass function: a break at 10 solar masses (since black holes below this mass can’t be created by mergers) and one at 60 solar masses (caused by the interaction of the upper and lower gaps). As we build up black-hole statistics in the future (thanks, gravitational-wave detectors!), searching for these breaks will help us to test our models.

Lastly, the authors find that their models can only be consistent with observations if ejection is efficient — black holes must be regularly ousted from star clusters through interactions with other bodies or as a result of kicks when they merge. This idea is consistent with many recent studies supporting a large population of free-floating stellar-mass black holes.

Citation

Pierre Christian et al 2018 ApJL 858 L8. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aabf88

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