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3I/ATLAS

Editor’s Note: For the remainder of 2025, we’ll be looking at a few selections that we haven’t yet discussed on AAS Nova from among the most-downloaded articles published in AAS journals this year. The usual posting schedule will resume January 2nd.

Hubble Space Telescope Observations of the Interstellar Interloper 3I/ATLAS

Published August 2025

Main takeaway:

3I/ATLAS

3I/ATLAS as seen by Hubble on 21 July 2025, when the comet was 3.83 au from the Sun. [Adapted from Jewitt et al. 2025]

David Jewitt (University of California, Los Angeles) and collaborators used the Hubble Space Telescope to observe the interstellar object 3I/ATLAS just a few weeks after it was discovered. These observations allowed the team to constrain the object’s mass-loss rate and the size of its nucleus, placing its radius between 0.22 and 2.8 kilometers.

Why it’s interesting:

3I/ATLAS is just the third known object to visit our solar system from another planetary system. With such a small sample size, every interstellar object discovered is a source of fascination. Are these objects more like comets or asteroids? How many of them roam the space between the stars? What, exactly, launches them into interstellar space? Using all available tools, including powerful observatories like Hubble, researchers can extract as much information as possible when interstellar objects make their brief journeys through our solar system, and get us closer to answering these key questions.

How these observations were planned, and what happened afterward:

After interstellar objects 1I/ʻOumuamua and 2I/Borisov zipped through the solar system in 2017 and 2019, respectively, researchers knew it was only a matter of time before the next interstellar interloper paid a visit. In preparation for the next arrival, Jewitt’s team proposed a target-of-opportunity observation with Hubble. This allowed them to disrupt the telescope’s planned observing schedule once 3I/ATLAS was discovered, getting an early high-resolution look that could guide further observations. Since then, researchers have published more than 30 articles in the AAS journals alone about 3I/ATLAS. In these articles, researchers have sought to understand where 3I/ATLAS came from, investigated its polarization properties, collected JWST data of the object, found it in pre-discovery data, and much more, crafting a comprehensive view of a rare visitor to our neighborhood.

Citation

David Jewitt et al 2025 ApJL 990 L2. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adf8d8

quasar artist's concept

Emitting powerful radiation into their surroundings, quasars had the ability to significantly influence their local environments. A recent study using JWST observations focuses in on one of the most powerful known quasars to determine its intergalactic impact.

Quasar Questions

Beacons of light from the very distant universe, quasars are incredibly luminous galactic cores powered by active supermassive black holes. During the first few billion years after the Big Bang, quasars pumped radiation not only into their host galaxies but also out into intergalactic space and subsequently into nearby galaxies. This radiation was strong enough to ionize any intervening material and even break up (or photodissociate) molecular hydrogen gas. With their star formation fuel evaporated, a quasar’s unsuspecting galactic neighbors were stymied from growth.

Sky map

Sky map showing the location of quasar J0100+2802 (marked with black cross) and the [OIII]-emitting galaxies detected in the field. The red points are within the same redshift window as J0100+2802, and the green and orange points show foreground and background galaxies respectively. Click to enlarge. [Zhu et al 2025]

When the universe went from neutral to ionized during the epoch of reionization, quasars are thought to have occupied dense regions, tracing out the beginnings of galaxy clusters. However, studies thus far have been unable to decipher the environmental influence of quasar radiation from other mechanisms impacting the evolution of nearby galaxies. With the advent of JWST, direct measurements of rest-frame star formation tracers during the epoch of reionization are now possible, allowing astronomers to explore high-redshift quasar environments in new ways.

Searching for Suppressed Star Formation

To investigate how quasars may impact their environments, Yongda Zhu (University of Arizona) and collaborators set their gazes on J0100+2802 — the most ultraviolet-luminous quasar known at redshift z > 6. This powerful quasar lies in an overdensity, surrounded by galaxies filled with hot, young stars, making it an ideal candidate to test the impacts of luminous quasars on their neighbors. The authors used spectroscopy and photometry obtained from JWST to explore the space around J0100+2802.

Searching within the expected reach of the quasar’s radiation field, the authors identified galaxies with doubly ionized oxygen emission ([OIII] λ5008), which traces a galaxy’s recent star formation activity. After carefully separating background and foreground galaxies from galaxies at the same redshift as J0100+2802, the authors measured the total [OIII] emission and compared it to the overall ultraviolet stellar emission. From their sample, galaxies closer to J0100+2802 tend to exhibit lower [OIII]/UV ratios than those farther away, indicating that the powerful quasar may be suppressing star formation activity in nearby galaxies. 

[OIII]/UV versus distance from quasar

[OIII]/UV ratio versus distance from quasar J0100+2802. There is a clear positive correlation indicating that closer to the powerful quasar, [OIII] emission declines. The dashed line shows the expected radiation field of J0100+2802. Click to enlarge. [Modified from Zhu et al 2025]

Confirming the Culprit

To verify that the quasar is truly responsible for this declining trend, other environmental factors and intrinsic galaxy properties must be ruled out. Could the galaxies nearby J0100+2802 just happen to have elevated ultraviolet stellar continuum? Or could the overdense environment itself drive this trend? The authors performed additional analysis to control for these variables and found no strong global factors that could explain the decline in [OIII] emission — radiation from the quasar is likely the driver.

To further bolster their results and determine whether this behavior is more widespread, the authors investigated the environments around three other quasars at the same redshift as J0100+2802. Though these quasars are not as powerful as J0100+2802, a similar trend is uncovered for galaxies within the radiation field of these quasars. From this study, radiative feedback from quasars appears to disrupt the star formation activity in nearby galaxies, suppressing their growth and changing the way early galaxy formation progresses. 

Further wide-field studies are necessary to understand the full extent to which reionization-era quasars can impact their environments, but this study provides a clear path forward with JWST.

Citation

“Quasar Radiative Feedback May Suppress Growth on Intergalactic Scales at z = 6.3,” Yongda Zhu et al 2025 ApJL 995 L5. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae1f8e

artist's impression of a magnetar in a binary system

A discovery that linked a fast radio burst to a magnetar in the Milky Way showed that certain fast radio bursts come from magnetars. A new study explores whether all fast radio bursts could have magnetar origins.

Varied Bursts

magnetar SGR 1935+2154

The bright blue source at the center of this X-ray image is SGR 1935+2154, the first magnetar to be associated with a fast radio burst. [Zhou et al. 2020]

Fast radio bursts — extremely bright radio blips lasting anywhere from a fraction of a millisecond to a few seconds — have provided researchers with one of the best recent astronomical mysteries. What causes these brilliant radio flashes, and why are they so varied? Most fast radio bursts seem to happen just once, while others repeat frequently or infrequently on irregular or regular timescales.

In July 2020, astronomers reported the discovery of a fast radio burst likely associated with a magnetar in the Milky Way. This discovery suggested that at least some fast radio bursts come from magnetars, the rapidly spinning, intensely magnetized remnants of certain massive stars. However, it’s still not known whether all fast radio bursts share this origin, or if their varied behaviors can be traced to equally varied origins.

Mystery Solved by Magnetars?

In a recent research article, Bing Zhang (University of Hong Kong; University of Nevada) and Rui-Chong Hu (University of Nevada) set out to explore the possibility that all fast radio bursts have magnetar origins.

illustration of magnetar origins

Magnetar formation pathways. The magnetic field lines of isolated magnetars have a black background, while the field lines of magnetars in binary systems have a white background. Click to enlarge. [Zhang & Hu 2025]

Zhang and Hu examined the different pathways through which magnetars form, as well as what properties they tend to have in each of these scenarios. This analysis suggested that the vast majority of magnetars in our universe are singletons, having formed from isolated stars, disrupted binary systems, or stellar mergers. This aligns with observations of magnetars in the Milky Way, none of which appear to have companions.

The remaining few percent of magnetars reside in binary systems. These coupled-up magnetars largely have companions more than twice as massive as the Sun, though some are paired with helium stars or compact objects.

Multiple Possible Arrangements

illustration of a magnetar in a binary system

Illustration of a magnetar in a binary system with a star with a stellar wind. As the magnetar moves along its orbit, it encounters differing amounts of stellar wind. This affects the polarization angle of the bursts. Click to enlarge. [Adapted from Zhang & Hu 2025]

Zhang and Hu found that both isolated and paired-up magnetars tend to form with their spin and magnetic axes in close alignment — a setup that likely enables the production of rapid-fire fast radio bursts. For isolated magnetars, these axes may become misaligned over time, sapping their ability to produce repeated bursts. In binary systems, magnetars that accrete mass from the stellar winds of a companion likely retain their alignment, creating a long-lasting engine of repeating fast radio bursts. The presence of winds from a stellar companion may also explain several curious traits of some fast radio bursts, such as rapid changes in polarization angle.

In this framework, actively repeating fast radio bursts arise from aligned magnetars in binary systems, while one-off or infrequently repeating bursts come from isolated magnetars or misaligned magnetars in binary systems. Isolated magnetars could also be responsible for some actively repeating bursts, though this ability is likely short lived.

Though this work demonstrates that magnetars could be the source of all fast radio bursts, it doesn’t rule out the possibility that fast radio bursts have diverse origins instead. Further work is needed to explore other pathways and make even more headway on the mystery of fast radio bursts.

Citation

“Magnetars in Binaries as the Engine of Actively Repeating Fast Radio Bursts,” Bing Zhang and Rui-Chong Hu 2025 ApJL 994 L20. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae1023

luminous fast blue optical transient

Fast blue optical transients are a rare class of emerging transients, the source of which is not yet known. A recent study of the most luminous known object in this class, AT2024wpp, reveals clues about their identity.

A New Class of Transients

In 2018, a network of robotic survey telescopes spotted a new transient source toward a galaxy 200 million light-years away. It was bright and getting brighter rapidly, rising in just a few days to become 10–100 times brighter than the brightest supernovae.

That transient, AT2018cow, was the first of now tens of known sources like it that are too blue, too rapidly evolving, and too luminous to be ordinary supernovae. Despite the growing number of luminous fast blue optical transients (FBOTs) discovered, exactly what causes them is still up for debate.

Brightest of the Bright

Enter AT2024wpp: the most luminous known fast blue optical transient to date. In about a month and a half, this record-breaking event radiated away more than 1044 Joules — which is roughly equivalent to the Sun’s radiative output over 8 billion years. Nayana A. J. (University of California, Berkeley) and collaborators carried out an extensive multi-wavelength observing campaign to track the behavior of AT2024wpp from 2 to 280 days after it was first discovered, making it only the second FBOT to undergo such detailed study. This research article describes the team’s findings at radio and X-ray wavelengths.

X-ray behavior of AT2024wpp

X-ray behavior of AT2024wpp. The top plot demonstrates the hardening of the spectral index (i.e., shifting toward higher energies) around the peak at 50 days. Click to enlarge. [Nayana A. J. et al. 2025]

The team enlisted the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, the Australian Telescope Compact Array, the Allen Telescope Array, the MeerKAT array, and the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope to survey the source from 0.25 to 203 GHz. On the opposite end of the spectrum, they collected observations from the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM-Newton, and NuSTAR to probe AT2024wpp’s X-ray emission from 0.2 to 79 keV.

These observations revealed that AT2024wpp’s X-ray emission remained bright and constant for 7 days before plummeting until day 30. The emission then rocketed up again, peaking at day 50, and shifted toward higher energies. Finally, things settled down to a lower brightness around day 75. In the radio, AT2024wpp’s behavior was complex, showing a never-before-seen meteoric rise at millimeter wavelengths around 17–32 days.

Comparison of the density of the material surrounding AT2024wpp and other FBOTs

Comparison of the density of the material surrounding AT2024wpp (red stars) and other FBOTs. Click to enlarge. [Nayana A. J. et al. 2025]

Possible Scenarios

Based on these observations, the team favors a scenario involving a central compact object — a black hole or a neutron star — that is rapidly accreting matter from its surroundings. This accretion powers outflows that accelerate to more than 40% the speed of light and send a shock through dense material around the system. Notably, the team found that the density of the surrounding material is similar among FBOTs that have bright radio emission, including AT2024wpp. This suggests that similar processes are responsible for setting up these events.

The team pointed to two scenarios from the literature that are compatible with their data. In the first, a newborn neutron star or black hole collides with a stellar companion, ripping the star apart and accreting its remains. In the second, a Wolf–Rayet star (a massive star that has shed much of its atmosphere and is nearing its eventual end as a supernova) is tidally disrupted by a neutron star or a black hole. Though it’s not possible to narrow the possibilities further, the immense energies involved tilt things in favor of a black hole rather than a neutron star.

Though FBOTs remain mysterious, additional multi-wavelength studies like this one can help to illuminate their origins. And with the Ultraviolet Transient Astronomy Satellite (ULTRASAT) and UltraViolet EXplorer (UVEX) missions slated to launch within the next five years, we can expect many more FBOT discoveries in the near future.

Citation

“The Most Luminous Known Fast Blue Optical Transient AT 2024wpp: Unprecedented Evolution and Properties in the X-Rays and Radio,” Nayana A. J. et al 2025 ApJL 993 L6. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae0b4d

Simulation of a supermassive black hole binary

The gravitational wave background — the constant, low-frequency hum of colliding supermassive black holes across the universe — seems to have a larger amplitude than expected. Can preferential accretion explain why?

Larger than Expected

Arp 122

The peculiar galaxy Arp 122, shown here in a Hubble Space Telescope image, is in the process of merging. When two galaxies merge, the supermassive black holes at their centers eventually merge as well. [ESA/Hubble & NASA, J. Dalcanton, Dark Energy Survey/DOE/FNAL/DECam/CTIO/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA; Acknowledgement: L. Shatz; CC BY 4.0]

In 2023, researchers announced the discovery of compelling evidence for the gravitational wave background: a low-frequency, low-amplitude signal that is likely due to supermassive black hole binaries across the universe steadily trundling toward mergers. The amplitude of the background, however, is larger than expected for a population of merging supermassive black holes.

Though some researchers have invoked new physics to explain this discrepancy, all that may be required is an adjustment to our understanding of the supermassive black hole binary population in our universe. In a recent research article, Julia Comerford (University of Colorado Boulder) and Joseph Simon (University of Colorado Boulder; Oregon State University) tackled one of the underlying assumptions about the masses of merging supermassive black holes.

Preferential Accretion Pathway

When supermassive black holes merge, the strength of the gravitational wave signal depends on how similar the black holes were in mass; merging equal-mass black holes produce stronger signals than mismatched black holes do. What if, Comerford and Simon proposed, the masses of merging supermassive black holes scattered across the universe are more similar than previously thought?

initial and final black hole mass ratios

The initial and final black hole mass ratio, q. The blue and orange lines show a 10% and 20% increase in the total mass of the binary, respectively. The dotted line divides major mergers (q ≥ 0.25) and minor mergers. [Comerford & Simon 2025]

Observations and simulations of supermassive black holes within colliding galaxies appear to support this hypothesis. Rather than staying the same mass as they approach one another, as models tend to assume, supermassive black holes likely gather material from their surroundings and gain mass.

What’s more, it appears that the smaller of the two black holes tends to pack on more mass, meaning that the masses of the black holes grow more similar as they wind toward a merger. (This somewhat counterintuitive result arises because the smaller of the two black holes encounters more gas as it spirals inward.)

Boosting the Signal

If accretion tends to even out the masses of the binary members, is the resulting increase in signal strength large enough to explain the observed amplitude of the gravitational wave background?

plot of estimated gravitational wave amplitude

Probability distribution functions for the calculated gravitational wave background amplitude for different accretion conditions. The brown diamond shows the median amplitude from the NANOGrav data set. [Adapted from Comerford & Simon 2025]

Comerford and Simon modeled the gravitational wave background from supermassive black hole binaries undergoing preferential accretion onto the smaller black hole. Benchmarking their model with observations wherever possible, they found that just a 10% increase in the total mass of the merging black holes can raise the gravitational wave background to the median observed value — easing the discrepancy without the need for speculative new physics.

The signal-boosting effect from preferential accretion may be especially important if the binary evolution timescale — the time it takes for black holes approaching a merger to reach a separation at which their gravitational waves become accessible to pulsar timing arrays — is longer than the estimated 1.8 billion years. At longer timescales, models without this accretion become entirely inconsistent with observations. Future research that examines the masses and accretion rates of supermassive black holes as they approach make their way toward a merger can provide further clues to the role of preferential accretion.

Citation

“Preferential Accretion onto the Secondary Black Hole Strengthens Gravitational-Wave Signals,” Julia M. Comerford and Joseph Simon 2025 ApJ 994 168. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae1133

Images of a solar flare at different wavelengths

Forecasting solar flares is one of the major challenges facing solar physicists today. New research finds that non-thermal emission can precede a solar flare by more than an hour, and this early emission may signal whether the flare will be accompanied by an explosion of plasma.

Flare Flavors

photograph of a coronal mass ejection

The Solar & Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) took this coronagraphic image of a coronal mass ejection on 20 April 1998. [SOHO (ESA & NASA)]

Solar flares come in two basic flavors: eruptive and confined. Eruptive flares are accompanied by the launch of tangled clouds of plasma and magnetic fields called coronal mass ejections. Confined flares, so called because the solar plasma remains confined to the Sun, feature only a brief blast of high-energy radiation.

Both solar flares and coronal mass ejections can disrupt everyday life on Earth, with flares knocking out radio communications and coronal mass ejections threatening spacecraft electronics and power grids. Given these real-life risks, as well as the potential for probing the physics behind the activity on the Sun and other stars, it’s critical to be able to identify signs of upcoming flares.

Looking at the Lead-Up

Luckily, there’s growing evidence that the Sun sends out subtle signals that a flare is soon to happen. One early sign of an impending flare is an increase in the non-thermal velocity of the plasma at the flare’s location. This phenomenon has been spotted in individual flares, but it hasn’t been studied and characterized for a large sample of flares — until now.

example of increasing non-thermal velocity before a solar flare

Demonstration of the increase in non-thermal velocity seen in an M-class flare compared to the onset and rise time of the soft X-ray flux (gray shaded area). [Adapted from To et al. 2025]

A recent research article led by Andy S. H. To (European Space Agency) takes the first systematic, large-scale approach to studying the non-thermal velocity changes that precede solar flares. The team amassed a sample of 1,449 solar flares that were seen by the Hinode spacecraft, the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), and the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). Hinode provided the spectral information needed to identify increases in the non-thermal velocity, GOES provided the flare start times, and SDO provided detailed information on the location and appearance of each flare.

Of the flares in the sample, 83% were moderately powerful C-class flares, 18% were stronger M-class flares, and 1% were the most powerful X-class flares. To’s team identified a clear trend across all types of flares: the non-thermal velocity increases 4–25 minutes before the flare’s X-ray emission begins to rise, peaks when the X-ray emission peaks, and decays as the flare decays. The team found some evidence that for smaller flares, the velocity increase begins in spectral lines that trace cooler plasma before spreading to lines probing hotter plasma, but more work is needed to confirm this trend.

More Details

Examples of flares with and without coronal mass ejections

Examples of flares with and without coronal mass ejections. [Adapted from To et al. 2025]

Certain flares give even earlier hints of upcoming activity. M-class flares and some C-class flares exhibit what To’s team calls “precursor emission,” which emerges roughly 30–60 minutes before the flare’s X-ray emission peaks. The team also identified differences in precursor emission between confined and eruptive flares: eruptive flares display precursor emission over a broad range of spectral lines starting 45–74 minutes before the flare peaks, while confined flares show precursor emission later (31–54 minutes before peak) and in only a few spectral lines.

These results suggest that changes in the non-thermal velocity of solar plasma can not only signal when and where a flare is likely to arise, but also whether the flare will be accompanied by a potentially destructive coronal mass ejection. Upcoming missions like the Multi-slit Solar Explorer and SOLAR-C will give an even better view of the early stages of solar flares, helping to illuminate the physics behind them and enhancing our ability to forecast them.

Citation

“Systematic Nonthermal Velocity Increase Preceding Soft X-Ray Flare Onset: A Large-Scale Hinode/EIS Study,” Andy S. H. To et al 2025 ApJ 993 102. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae07de

constellation Orion

Multiple research teams have turned to the famous red supergiant Betelgeuse in search of a possible companion star hiding in its glare. A carefully designed spectroscopic search has placed new constraints on the identity of Betelgeuse’s stellar buddy.

Betelgeuse and its companion star

An image of Betelgeuse and its probable companion star from the ‘Alopeke instrument on the Gemini North telescope. [International Gemini Observatory/NOIRLab/NSF/AURA; Image Processing: M. Zamani (NSF NOIRLab); CC BY 4.0]

Betelgeuse and Its Buddy

Betelgeuse, a nearby red supergiant, is a variable star with a 400-day primary pulsation period and a 2,100-day secondary variation period. Recent studies have speculated that this secondary period is due to the presence of an 0.5–2.0-solar-mass companion star (often nicknamed “Betelbuddy”), and researchers using a speckle imaging technique likely spotted this companion earlier this year.

As is often the case when there’s an intriguing astronomical possibility, multiple research teams have sought out Betelgeuse’s purported stellar companion in different ways. One avenue recently described in a published paper was spectroscopic, searching for signs of ultraviolet emission lines from a growing young star.

Spectroscopic Search

In just 10 million years, Betelgeuse has sped through its main-sequence lifetime and taken on a new starring role as a red supergiant. In contrast, a 0.5–2.0-solar-mass companion star would not have even reached the main sequence in the same span of time. How is it possible to spot a tiny young stellar object next to a much brighter supergiant?

Hubble's observing pattern of Betelgeuse

Hubble observing pattern, showing how the quadrants are arrayed around Betelgeuse. Click to enlarge. [Goldberg et al. 2025]

A team led by Jared Goldberg (Flatiron Institute) found a possible way forward in the far-ultraviolet, where young stellar objects and red supergiants both display prominent emission lines. Though Betelgeuse would greatly outshine its stellar buddy, the companion’s orbital motion should shift its emission lines relative to those of Betelgeuse, bringing them into view. To guide their search, the team consulted spectra of known young stellar objects, finding a dozen ultraviolet spectral lines that either rival the strength of those from Betelgeuse or aren’t present in Betelgeuse’s spectrum at all.

The search is on: Goldberg and collaborators observed Betelgeuse with the Hubble Space Telescope in November 2024, timed to when the companion star’s emission lines would be shifted relative to Betelgeuse. The observations split Betelgeuse’s disk into quadrants, only one or two of which should contain the companion, helping the team tease out the signal from the smaller star, if present. Ultimately, though, no statistically significant signals were found.

spectra of Betelgeuse

Emission around Betelgeuse’s 1504.82 Angstrom H2 line from each of the four observed quadrants as well as combinations of two quadrants. No significant signals were detected at the expected radial velocity of the companion star. [Goldberg et al. 2025]

When Finding Nothing Tells You Something

A lack of a significant detection doesn’t mean that the companion isn’t there, but it does place constraints on its identity. The data confidently rule out a companion star twice as massive as the Sun, marginally permit a star in the 1.1–1.5-solar-mass range, and favor a star lower than 1.1 solar masses.

Researchers assigned a likely mass of about 1.5 solar masses to the probable companion star imaged earlier this year. Though this is at the limit of what’s permitted by the ultraviolet observations, Goldberg and coauthors note that the companion star’s ultraviolet output could be suppressed due to tidal coupling with Betelgeuse or other processes. If the star’s ultraviolet emission is lower than expected, a 1.5-solar-mass companion remains consistent with Hubble’s non-detection of the star.

This is a fantastic example of how multiple lines of inquiry can converge on similar solutions. With the companion star expected to swing around to a favorable observing position again in 2027, this is certainly not the last chapter in the tale of Betelgeuse and Betelbuddy.

Citation

“Betelgeuse, Betelgeuse, Betelgeuse, Betel-buddy? Constraints on the Dynamical Companion to α Orionis from HST,” Jared A. Goldberg et al 2025 ApJ 994 101. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae0c0c

Star formation in the early universe.

Astronomers have long sought evidence of the universe’s first generation of stars, and as more distant galaxies come into view, it seems these stars may finally be within reach.

JWST deep field

JWST spies thousands of distant galaxies in the classic Hubble Deep Field — many galaxies being uncovered for the first time with the space telescope’s powerful instruments. [ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, G. Östlin, P. G. Perez-Gonzalez, J. Melinder, the JADES Collaboration, the MIDIS collaboration, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb); CC BY 4.0]

Excess Metals Popping Up

Since its 2021 launch, JWST has given astronomers eyes to peer into the distant past, discovering many galaxies whose light reveals the universe’s early stages of star and galaxy formation. Within the population of newly discovered galaxies are a few with bizarre chemical properties that, upon first pass, seem to be too enriched to exist so early in the universe. These hard-to-reconcile abundances may be a sign of the universe’s first stars. 

Known as Population III (Pop III) stars, the first stars in the universe were born out of giant clouds of pristine gas (hydrogen, helium, and a little lithium) and were able to form at masses hundreds to thousands of times the mass of our Sun. Though they burned bright, they did not burn for very long, ending their lives in violent supernovae and chucking their newly enriched guts back into their surroundings. While these stars are long dead, the chemical imprints they left on their host galaxies can persist  — and understanding how Pop III stars create and distribute metals could clue us in to the odd chemical signatures recently found with JWST.

Too Much Nitrogen in GS 3073

Researchers have identified a few galaxies exhibiting high nitrogen-to-oxygen (N/O) ratios that cannot be explained by stars similar to those in the universe today. A couple of these galaxies could be explained through multiple stellar populations, rapidly rotating stars, massive explosions, or the early stages of globular cluster formation. However, GS 3073, a galaxy with a redshift of z = 5.55 (about one billion years after the Big Bang), has an N/O excess so high that is has, so far, defied explanation.

Aiming to make sense of this bizarre phenomenon, Devesh Nandal (University of Virginia; Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian) and collaborators used stellar evolution models to see if Pop III stars could be the culprit. Modeling stars with masses 1,000–10,000 times the mass of our Sun, the authors traced the elemental yields of these supermassive stars as they go through the various stages of nuclear burning. The analysis takes into account mixing within the stars, mass loss throughout their lifetimes, and how the eventual supernova ejecta mixes within the interstellar medium.

N/O, C/O, and Ne/O abundance ratios of five modeled supermassive Pop III stars taking into account the contribution from other stars in the galaxy and the Pop III star losing 10% of its mass over its lifetime. The green star indicates the observed ratios of GS 3073. Click to enlarge. [Nandal et al 2025]

From this modeling, the authors found that massive Pop III stars between 1,000 and 10,000 solar masses can produce the observed elemental abundances measured for GS 3073. Stars less massive do not produce high enough N/O ratios, and stars more massive have much lower oxygen-to-hydrogen ratios — strongly suggesting upper and lower mass limits to the possible supermassive stars that could have produced GS 3073’s chemical composition.

Finally Evidence of Pop III Stars?

This study of GS 3073 is the first of its kind to confirm the chemical imprints of Pop III stars on their host galaxy at this redshift. The unique nitrogen abundance can only be produced through the evolutionary phases of Pop III stars that burn quickly enough to produce and release an excess amount of nitrogen while other elements stay consistent. From their modeling, the authors suggest that galaxies with even higher nitrogen excess could exist, and further observations with JWST may just find them. 

The search for Pop III stars is booming — another recent study (Visbal et al 2025) examines the galaxy LAP1-B. While GS 3073 shows evidence of Pop III stars through chemical abundances, the study of LAP1-B finds that the galaxy matches theoretical predictions for the formation environments and mass distributions of Pop III stars. Both of these recent research works are laying the groundwork for the wealth of discovery possible with JWST, and the universe’s first stars are no longer out of reach.

Citation

“1000–10,000 M⊙ Primordial Stars Created the Nitrogen Excess in GS 3073 at z = 5.55,” Devesh Nandal et al 2025 ApJL 994 L11. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae1a63

A rendering of three white stars, two of which are very close together.

What if there was one process capable of creating every type of detectable stellar-mass black hole system? Recent research suggests there might be, and that it involves a triple-star system.

Three Separate Contexts

Stellar-mass black holes, or black holes that are at most a few hundred times the mass of the Sun, pop up in a number of different environments in the Milky Way. Astronomers have known since the 1960s that these black holes are the engines behind accreting low-mass X-ray binaries; more recently, researchers at gravitational wave observatories such as LIGO have found pairs of black holes orbiting each other just prior to merging; and, in just the past few years, scientists using the Gaia spacecraft have found black holes on wide, prowling orbits around still-burning stars.

A photograph of a patch of the night sky with two nested purple ovals overlaid.

An illustration of the first black hole discovered with a star on a wide orbit. The black hole moves along the smaller inner ellipse, while its companion star orbits along the wider outer one. [ESA/Gaia/DPAC]

Although each of these scenarios involves a black hole, it’s unclear how exactly these black holes are related to one another, or if they’re related at all. For instance, do low-mass X-ray binaries form the same way as the binary black holes observed with LIGO? Are the wide star–black hole binaries discovered by Gaia destined to eventually merge as two black holes, or are they a separate population altogether?

Recent research led by Smadar Naoz (University of California, Los Angeles) offers a potential answer to this question of relatedness — that each of these situations forms through the same underlying process.

Triples Systems

An illustration of multiple stars evolving along different pathways indicated by arrows.

A schematic illustration of how triple-star systems can produce all three types of observable stellar-mass black hole systems. Click to enlarge. [Naoz et al. 2025]

The mechanism Naoz and collaborators describe would work as follows. First, three stars begin their lives all bound together via gravity. Two of these stars orbit each other fairly closely, but the third hangs back much farther away. After the two inner stars burn out and collapse into black holes, they undergo the kind of collision commonly observed by LIGO and merge together. This process gives the resulting larger black hole a “kick,” meaning it goes flying off away from the site of the impact with some new velocity.

What happens next depends on the geometry of the system and the direction of the kick. If the remnant black hole gets shot away from the third star, it might just drift off on its own and leave the star behind. If the kick isn’t too strong, the remnant will remain gravitationally bound to that third star, and the system will eventually look like the star–black hole pairs observed by Gaia. Finally, if the kick sends the remnant toward the third star, some dramatic outcomes become possible: either the black hole starts nibbling on the star and the system becomes a low-mass X-ray binary, or the black hole simply smashes into the star, destroying it completely in a large, flashy explosion paired with a gravitational wave signal.

The authors stress that this mechanism is almost certainly not the only way that these three stellar-mass black hole systems form. However, it is exciting to consider a common thread underlying such seemingly different scenarios, and with upgrades coming to gravitational wave observatories, we can hope for tests of its feasibility in the near future.

Citation

“Triples as Links Between Binary Black Hole Mergers, Their Electromagnetic Counterparts, and Galactic Black Holes,” Smadar Naoz et al 2025 ApJL 992 L12. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae0a20

A photograph of a dense knot of stars against a collection of more spread-out stars.

By simulating how the orbits of distant solar system objects were altered by close encounters with other stars early in the Sun’s life, astronomers have placed tight constraints on how long our home star stuck around its siblings after birth.

Born in Batches

Though our Sun currently travels on a solitary trajectory through the galaxy, its earliest childhood was not spent so lonely. Instead, the Sun was likely born as part of a litter of many other stars all collapsing out of the same cloud of precursor gas and dust. As a consequence, its early adolescence was spent in the company of dozens of other young stars, all zipping along on their own paths, destined to drift apart but initially packed close together.

A photograph of three bright stars within a circular cavity of gas.

The Hubble Space Telescope’s view of a collection of young stars still embedded within their natal nebula. [NASA, ESA, G. Duchene (Universite de Grenoble I); Image Processing: Gladys Kober (NASA/Catholic University of America)]

Despite their kinship, these young stars were not kind to one another when they passed nearby. When two stars grow close, the intense gravity of the encounter can severely disrupt their proto-planetary systems, scattering the objects orbiting farthest from their stars and potentially even ejecting some objects altogether. These early years likely left scars on the edges of our solar system that persist even today, billions of years after the early tussles.

Recent research led by Amir Siraj, Princeton University, leverages these scars or their apparent absence to ask the question: given the structure we observe in the outer solar system today, what limits can we place on the number of stars born near the Sun and the amount of time the Sun spent in its birth cluster?

Distance is Power

Several authors have asked this question over the past several decades, but Siraj and collaborators added a new twist: instead of studying either the giant planets or the cold classical Kuiper Belt, they instead focused exclusively on the “distant sednoids.” This rarefied collection of only nine known objects includes only the most distant minor planets in our solar system: the sednoids never come within 40 au of the Sun, and they spend much of their orbits beyond 400 au. Interestingly, however, all of them orbit on planes that are fairly aligned with that of the planets, and none ever strays farther than 20° from the ecliptic.

A black background with the sun at center surrounded by several large ovals, each labeled with the name of a minor planet.

An illustration of the orbits for some of the distant sednoids considered in this study. Click to enlarge. [NAOJ]

Through a suite of numerical simulations, Siraj and collaborators demonstrate that this relatively tight distribution of inclinations implies that the Sun couldn’t have been too roughed up on its way out of the cluster. By simulating many different close flybys and their influence on the distant sednoids, the researchers constrained the product of the number of stars in the Sun’s birth cluster and the time the Sun spent there to be less than or equal to 5 billion years per cubic parsec. Assuming a typical cluster density of 100 stars per cubic parsec, this suggests that the Sun cleared out of the densest and most dangerous part of the cluster within just 50 million years.

The authors stress that this conclusion leans on the assumption that the distant sednoids arrived on their extreme orbits essentially immediately, though in fact astronomers aren’t sure exactly how and when these objects ended up on the outskirts of the solar system. If the sednoids were in fact implanted onto their orbits early on, this limit on how long it took the Sun to leave its siblings is by far the strongest to date. With the Vera C. Rubin Observatory poised to discover thousands of new distant solar system objects, it’s likely that the bound will grow even more stringent in the next few years.

Citation

“Limits on Stellar Flybys in the Solar Birth Cluster,” Amir Siraj et al 2025 ApJL 993 L4. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ae1025

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