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Title: Probing the IMF in the Early Universe — Direct Measurements in the Boötes I UFD with JWST/NIRCam
Authors: Keyi Ding et al.
First Author’s Institution: University of Maryland
Status: Accepted to ApJ
The Stellar Initial Mass Function
Figure 1: Several different formulations for the IMF. Astronomers have found that the Milky Way IMF seems to follow either a broken power law (Kroupa), or a log-normal (Chabrier) distribution. [JohannesBuchner; CC BY-SA 4.0]
For a relatively simple concept, the IMF is shaped by incredibly complicated underlying physical mechanisms. Things like turbulence, magnetic fields, and chemical enrichment all play a role in shaping the observed IMF. Additionally, the IMF is a pretty fundamental quantity. An enormous amount of astronomy research relies on assumptions made about the IMF. For example, since most stars are low in mass, and low-mass stars are dimmer, astronomers use the IMF to convert the amount of light in a galaxy to the number of stars; if there are more or fewer low-mass stars than we expect, our measurements will be wrong.
A big question surrounding the IMF is whether or not it’s universal. In the Milky Way, astronomers have been able to measure the IMF accurately, and they have found that it seems to be the same regardless of which bunch of stars we use to measure it.1 However, we know that galaxies in the early universe were very different compared to today. Things get tricky when you acknowledge that most measurements made of early-universe galaxies rely on modeling tools that are entirely reliant on assuming an IMF. This gnarly little detail makes measuring the IMF in the early universe especially valuable to astronomers.
What Makes Ultra-Faint Dwarfs So Special?
Today’s authors attempt to measure the early-universe IMF using a local relic, an ultra-faint dwarf galaxy (UFD). You might describe UFDs as “incredibly funky little galaxies.” They’re much less massive than the Milky Way, with about 10,000 times less stellar mass. What stars they do have tend to be very old and metal poor. The nature of UFDs has led many astronomers to think of them as fossils: relatively untouched galaxies formed in the early universe. Since we think UFDs are fossils of earlier galaxies, measuring the IMF in a UFD tells us whether the IMF was the same in the early universe as it is today. The authors focus on Boötes I, a relatively luminous UFD orbiting the Milky Way. Figure 2 shows Boötes I as seen by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey.
Figure 2: Boötes I as seen by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Because they’re so diffuse, UFDs look less like galaxies and more like groups of stars. [Vasily Belokurov – SDSS-II Collaboration]
The IMF in Boötes I
Measuring the IMF can get tricky — it’s typically pretty difficult to measure the mass of each individual star in a galaxy. Thankfully, Boötes I is close enough that we can do exactly that! Using JWST’s NIRCam instrument, today’s authors obtain imaging of Boötes I that is sensitive enough to extract roughly 10,000 stars belonging to the galaxy.
To measure the IMF from the observed population of stars, the authors use a modified version of Starwave, a Bayesian inference tool. In short, the tool takes in some assumptions about the population of stars in the galaxy, then generates many potential color–magnitude diagrams for various parameter selections. You can then assess how well each simulated color–magnitude diagram fits the observed data, thus determining likely parameters for the stellar population. The authors apply their tool for three different IMF models, testing how close the IMF in Boötes I is to that of the Milky Way. This allows them to determine how well the IMF compares to that of the Milky Way, which is typically thought of as a broken power law or log-normal distribution. If the IMF in Boötes I aligns with the Milky Way’s IMF, we’ll have a solid piece of evidence for a truly invariant IMF across cosmic time, allowing astronomers to rest easy knowing our modeling efforts haven’t been bunk this whole time.
So… What Did We Learn?
The authors find that a single power law can be ruled out to a good degree of confidence. This is good, as Milky Way studies show undeniable evidence of a turnover in the distribution. The broken power law and log-normal models both fit the observed data relatively well, aligning well with Milky Way–derived IMFs. All in all, they find solid evidence for an invariant IMF in the early universe.
However, they are unable to say with absolute certainty that the IMF is invariant. Given that their data are nearly perfect (that is, it’s pretty much impossible to get better data for Boötes I), the authors emphasize that a larger sample of UFD IMFs is needed to truly rule out an invariant IMF, but we’re certainly taking steps in the right direction! As the age-old saying goes, “more data are needed!”
Original astrobite edited by Maggie Verrico.
- Editor’s Note: The Milky Way IMF may vary from star cluster to star cluster; as described in this AAS Nova highlight from 8 July 2026, recent research using data from the Gaia spacecraft has found evidence for IMF variation in our galaxy. ↩︎
About the author, Drew Lapeer:
Drew is a first-year PhD student at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. They are broadly interested in the evolution of galaxies, with a focus on the impact of cosmic feedback on the galactic ecosystem. In their free time, they enjoy reading, rock climbing, hiking, and baking!